Our Relationship with Food: Understanding Eating Disorders and Strategies for Overcoming Them
Understanding Eating Disorders
Types of Eating Disorders
Eating disorders are serious mental health conditions characterized by abnormal eating habits that can significantly impair physical health and psychosocial functioning. The most common types include:
- Anorexia Nervosa: Characterized by an intense fear of gaining weight, leading to self-starvation and excessive weight loss.
- Bulimia Nervosa: Involves cycles of binge eating followed by compensatory behaviors such as vomiting, fasting, or excessive exercise to prevent weight gain.
- Binge-Eating Disorder: Marked by recurrent episodes of eating large quantities of food, often rapidly and to the point of discomfort, accompanied by feelings of loss of control and guilt.
Causes of Eating Disorders
The etiology of eating disorders is multifactorial, involving a combination of biological, psychological, and sociocultural factors.
- Biological Factors: Genetic predisposition, hormonal imbalances, and abnormalities in brain function can contribute to the development of eating disorders (Smink, van Hoeken, & Hoek, 2012).
- Psychological Factors: Low self-esteem, perfectionism, and a history of trauma or abuse are common psychological risk factors (Fairburn, 2008).
- Sociocultural Factors: Societal pressures and media portrayals of ideal body types can significantly influence body image and eating behaviors, particularly in adolescents and young adults (Tiggemann, 2014).
Strategies for Overcoming Eating Disorders
Addressing eating disorders requires a comprehensive and multidisciplinary approach. Here are some effective strategies:
Professional Treatment
- Therapy: Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) is highly effective in treating eating disorders by addressing distorted thoughts and behaviors related to food and body image (Fairburn et al., 2015). Other therapeutic approaches include interpersonal therapy (IPT) and dialectical behavior therapy (DBT).
- Medical Care: Regular medical monitoring is essential to address the physical health complications associated with eating disorders. This may involve working with a primary care physician, nutritionist, and psychiatrist.
- Medications: Antidepressants, particularly selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), can be helpful in treating co-occurring conditions such as depression and anxiety (Kaye et al., 2011).
Self-Help Strategies
- Mindful Eating: Practicing mindfulness during meals can help individuals become more aware of their hunger and fullness cues, promoting a healthier relationship with food (Kristeller & Wolever, 2011).
- Building a Support Network: Connecting with supportive friends, family members, or support groups can provide emotional support and reduce feelings of isolation.
- Setting Realistic Goals: Focusing on small, achievable goals related to eating behaviors and body image can help build confidence and reduce the overwhelming nature of recovery.
Preventive Measures
- Promoting Positive Body Image: Encouraging a healthy and realistic view of body diversity can help reduce the societal pressure to conform to idealized body standards.
- Education: Raising awareness about the signs and symptoms of eating disorders can facilitate early intervention and support.
- Healthy Lifestyle Practices: Encouraging balanced nutrition, regular physical activity, and adequate sleep can support overall well-being and reduce the risk of developing eating disorders.
Conclusion
Eating disorders are complex mental health conditions that require a multifaceted approach to treatment and recovery. Understanding the underlying causes and implementing effective strategies can significantly improve the quality of life for individuals struggling with these disorders. By fostering a healthier relationship with food and promoting positive body image, we can create a supportive environment that facilitates healing and resilience.
References
Fairburn, C. G. (2008). Cognitive Behavior Therapy and Eating Disorders. Guilford Press.
Fairburn, C. G., Cooper, Z., & Shafran, R. (2003). Cognitive behavior therapy for eating disorders: A "transdiagnostic" theory and treatment. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 41(5), 509-528.
Fairburn, C. G., Bailey-Straebler, S., Basden, S., Doll, H. A., Jones, R., Murphy, R., ... & Cooper, Z. (2015). A transdiagnostic comparison of enhanced cognitive behavior therapy (CBT-E) and interpersonal psychotherapy in the treatment of eating disorders. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 70, 64-71.
Kaye, W. H., Fudge, J. L., & Paulus, M. (2011). New insights into symptoms and neurocircuit function of anorexia nervosa. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 12(8), 573-584.
Kristeller, J. L., & Wolever, R. Q. (2011). Mindfulness-based eating awareness training for treating binge eating disorder: The conceptual foundation. Eating Disorders, 19(1), 49-61.
Smink, F. R., van Hoeken, D., & Hoek, H. W. (2012). Epidemiology, course, and outcome of eating disorders. Current Opinion in Psychiatry, 25(6), 543-548.
Tiggemann, M. (2014). Media exposure, body dissatisfaction and disordered eating: Television and magazines are not the same! European Eating Disorders Review, 12(1), 15-23.
By focusing on a holistic and compassionate approach to understanding and treating eating disorders, we can help individuals rebuild their relationship with food and achieve long-term recovery.
Our Relationship with Food: Understanding Eating Disorders, Body Dysmorphia, and Strategies for Overcoming Them
Introduction
The relationship with food is a complex and multifaceted aspect of human life. Food is not only essential for physical sustenance but also deeply intertwined with cultural practices, social interactions, and emotional well-being. However, this relationship can become problematic for some individuals, leading to the development of eating disorders and body dysmorphia. This blog aims to explore the nature of eating disorders, body dysmorphia, why they occur, and provide strategies for overcoming these mental health concerns.
Understanding Eating Disorders
Types of Eating Disorders
Eating disorders are serious mental health conditions characterized by abnormal eating habits that can significantly impair physical health and psychosocial functioning. The most common types include:
- Anorexia Nervosa: Characterized by an intense fear of gaining weight, leading to self-starvation and excessive weight loss.
- Bulimia Nervosa: Involves cycles of binge eating followed by compensatory behaviors such as vomiting, fasting, or excessive exercise to prevent weight gain.
- Binge-Eating Disorder: Marked by recurrent episodes of eating large quantities of food, often rapidly and to the point of discomfort, accompanied by feelings of loss of control and guilt.
Causes of Eating Disorders
The etiology of eating disorders is multifactorial, involving a combination of biological, psychological, and sociocultural factors.
- Biological Factors: Genetic predisposition, hormonal imbalances, and abnormalities in brain function can contribute to the development of eating disorders (Smink, van Hoeken, & Hoek, 2012).
- Psychological Factors: Low self-esteem, perfectionism, and a history of trauma or abuse are common psychological risk factors (Fairburn, 2008).
- Sociocultural Factors: Societal pressures and media portrayals of ideal body types can significantly influence body image and eating behaviors, particularly in adolescents and young adults (Tiggemann, 2014).
Understanding Body Dysmorphia
What is Body Dysmorphic Disorder (BDD)?
Body Dysmorphic Disorder (BDD) is a mental health condition where an individual becomes obsessively concerned with perceived flaws or defects in their physical appearance. These perceived flaws are often minor or not observable to others. BDD can significantly impact an individual's daily life, leading to excessive grooming, mirror checking, skin picking, and in severe cases, seeking unnecessary cosmetic procedures.
Causes of Body Dysmorphia
Similar to eating disorders, the causes of BDD are multifactorial:
- Biological Factors: Genetic influences and neurobiological factors such as serotonin dysfunction can play a role in BDD (Phillips, 2005).
- Psychological Factors: Personality traits like perfectionism and a history of trauma or abuse are significant risk factors (Veale, 2004).
- Sociocultural Factors: Societal emphasis on physical appearance and media portrayal of beauty standards contribute to the development and maintenance of BDD (Grabe, Ward, & Hyde, 2008).
Strategies for Overcoming Eating Disorders and Body Dysmorphia
Addressing these mental health concerns requires a comprehensive and multidisciplinary approach. Here are some effective strategies:
Professional Treatment
- Therapy: Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) is highly effective in treating both eating disorders and BDD by addressing distorted thoughts and behaviors related to food, body image, and appearance (Fairburn et al., 2015; Wilhelm, Otto, Lohr, & Glass, 1999). Other therapeutic approaches include interpersonal therapy (IPT) and dialectical behavior therapy (DBT).
- Medical Care: Regular medical monitoring is essential to address the physical health complications associated with eating disorders. This may involve working with a primary care physician, nutritionist, and psychiatrist.
- Medications: Antidepressants, particularly selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), can be helpful in treating co-occurring conditions such as depression, anxiety, and BDD (Phillips et al., 2002).
Self-Help Strategies
- Mindful Eating: Practicing mindfulness during meals can help individuals become more aware of their hunger and fullness cues, promoting a healthier relationship with food (Kristeller & Wolever, 2011).
- Building a Support Network: Connecting with supportive friends, family members, or support groups can provide emotional support and reduce feelings of isolation.
- Setting Realistic Goals: Focusing on small, achievable goals related to eating behaviors, body image, and appearance can help build confidence and reduce the overwhelming nature of recovery.
Preventive Measures
- Promoting Positive Body Image: Encouraging a healthy and realistic view of body diversity can help reduce the societal pressure to conform to idealized body standards.
- Education: Raising awareness about the signs and symptoms of eating disorders and BDD can facilitate early intervention and support.
- Healthy Lifestyle Practices: Encouraging balanced nutrition, regular physical activity, and adequate sleep can support overall well-being and reduce the risk of developing eating disorders and BDD.
Conclusion
Eating disorders and body dysmorphia are complex mental health conditions that require a multifaceted approach to treatment and recovery. Understanding the underlying causes and implementing effective strategies can significantly improve the quality of life for individuals struggling with these disorders. By fostering a healthier relationship with food and promoting positive body image, we can create a supportive environment that facilitates healing and resilience.
References
Fairburn, C. G. (2008). Cognitive Behavior Therapy and Eating Disorders. Guilford Press.
Fairburn, C. G., Cooper, Z., & Shafran, R. (2003). Cognitive behavior therapy for eating disorders: A "transdiagnostic" theory and treatment. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 41(5), 509-528.
Fairburn, C. G., Bailey-Straebler, S., Basden, S., Doll, H. A., Jones, R., Murphy, R., ... & Cooper, Z. (2015). A transdiagnostic comparison of enhanced cognitive behavior therapy (CBT-E) and interpersonal psychotherapy in the treatment of eating disorders. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 70, 64-71.
Grabe, S., Ward, L. M., & Hyde, J. S. (2008). The role of the media in body image concerns among women: A meta-analysis of experimental and correlational studies. Psychological Bulletin, 134(3), 460-476.
Kaye, W. H., Fudge, J. L., & Paulus, M. (2011). New insights into symptoms and neurocircuit function of anorexia nervosa. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 12(8), 573-584.
Kristeller, J. L., & Wolever, R. Q. (2011). Mindfulness-based eating awareness training for treating binge eating disorder: The conceptual foundation. Eating Disorders, 19(1), 49-61.
Phillips, K. A. (2005). The broken mirror: Understanding and treating body dysmorphic disorder. Oxford University Press.
Phillips, K. A., Albertini, R. S., & Rasmussen, S. A. (2002). A randomized placebo-controlled trial of fluoxetine in body dysmorphic disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry, 59(4), 381-388.
Smink, F. R., van Hoeken, D., & Hoek, H. W. (2012). Epidemiology, course, and outcome of eating disorders. Current Opinion in Psychiatry, 25(6), 543-548.
Tiggemann, M. (2014). Media exposure, body dissatisfaction and disordered eating: Television and magazines are not the same! European Eating Disorders Review, 12(1), 15-23.
Veale, D. (2004). Advances in a cognitive behavioural model of body dysmorphic disorder. Body Image, 1(1), 113-125.
Wilhelm, S., Otto, M. W., Lohr, B., & Glass, C. (1999). Cognitive behavior group therapy for body dysmorphic disorder: A case series. Behavior Research and Therapy, 37(1), 71-75.
By focusing on a holistic and compassionate approach to understanding and treating eating disorders and body dysmorphia, we can help individuals rebuild their relationship with food and appearance, achieving long-term recovery and a better quality of life.
Our Relationship with Food: Understanding Eating Disorders, Body Dysmorphia, and Strategies for Overcoming Them
Introduction
The relationship with food is a complex and multifaceted aspect of human life. Food is not only essential for physical sustenance but also deeply intertwined with cultural practices, social interactions, and emotional well-being. However, this relationship can become problematic for some individuals, leading to the development of eating disorders and body dysmorphia. This blog aims to explore the nature of eating disorders, body dysmorphia, why they occur, and provide strategies for overcoming these mental health concerns.
Understanding Eating Disorders
Types of Eating Disorders
Eating disorders are serious mental health conditions characterized by abnormal eating habits that can significantly impair physical health and psychosocial functioning. The most common types include:
- Anorexia Nervosa: Characterized by an intense fear of gaining weight, leading to self-starvation and excessive weight loss.
- Bulimia Nervosa: Involves cycles of binge eating followed by compensatory behaviors such as vomiting, fasting, or excessive exercise to prevent weight gain.
- Binge-Eating Disorder: Marked by recurrent episodes of eating large quantities of food, often rapidly and to the point of discomfort, accompanied by feelings of loss of control and guilt.
Causes of Eating Disorders
The etiology of eating disorders is multifactorial, involving a combination of biological, psychological, and sociocultural factors.
- Biological Factors: Genetic predisposition, hormonal imbalances, and abnormalities in brain function can contribute to the development of eating disorders (Smink, van Hoeken, & Hoek, 2012).
- Psychological Factors: Low self-esteem, perfectionism, and a history of trauma or abuse are common psychological risk factors (Fairburn, 2008).
- Sociocultural Factors: Societal pressures and media portrayals of ideal body types can significantly influence body image and eating behaviors, particularly in adolescents and young adults (Tiggemann, 2014). For instance, a study by Rodgers and Melioli (2016) found that social media use is strongly linked to body dissatisfaction and disordered eating behaviors among young adults.
Understanding Body Dysmorphia
What is Body Dysmorphic Disorder (BDD)?
Body Dysmorphic Disorder (BDD) is a mental health condition where an individual becomes obsessively concerned with perceived flaws or defects in their physical appearance. These perceived flaws are often minor or not observable to others. BDD can significantly impact an individual's daily life, leading to excessive grooming, mirror checking, skin picking, and in severe cases, seeking unnecessary cosmetic procedures.
Causes of Body Dysmorphia
Similar to eating disorders, the causes of BDD are multifactorial:
- Biological Factors: Genetic influences and neurobiological factors such as serotonin dysfunction can play a role in BDD (Phillips, 2005).
- Psychological Factors: Personality traits like perfectionism and a history of trauma or abuse are significant risk factors (Veale, 2004).
- Sociocultural Factors: Societal emphasis on physical appearance and media portrayal of beauty standards contribute to the development and maintenance of BDD (Grabe, Ward, & Hyde, 2008). Recent research by Park et al. (2020) highlights that the increase in social media filter usage has exacerbated body image issues, particularly among teenagers.
Strategies for Overcoming Eating Disorders and Body Dysmorphia
Addressing these mental health concerns requires a comprehensive and multidisciplinary approach. Here are some effective strategies:
Professional Treatment
- Therapy: Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) is highly effective in treating both eating disorders and BDD by addressing distorted thoughts and behaviors related to food, body image, and appearance (Fairburn et al., 2015; Wilhelm, Otto, Lohr, & Glass, 1999). Other therapeutic approaches include interpersonal therapy (IPT) and dialectical behavior therapy (DBT). For example, CBT has been shown to reduce symptoms of BDD by helping individuals challenge their negative thoughts about appearance and develop healthier coping strategies (Harrison et al., 2016).
- Medical Care: Regular medical monitoring is essential to address the physical health complications associated with eating disorders. This may involve working with a primary care physician, nutritionist, and psychiatrist.
- Medications: Antidepressants, particularly selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), can be helpful in treating co-occurring conditions such as depression, anxiety, and BDD (Phillips et al., 2002).
Self-Help Strategies
- Mindful Eating: Practicing mindfulness during meals can help individuals become more aware of their hunger and fullness cues, promoting a healthier relationship with food (Kristeller & Wolever, 2011). For instance, someone with binge-eating disorder might practice mindful eating by paying close attention to the taste, texture, and smell of their food, which can help reduce the urge to binge.
- Building a Support Network: Connecting with supportive friends, family members, or support groups can provide emotional support and reduce feelings of isolation.
- Setting Realistic Goals: Focusing on small, achievable goals related to eating behaviors, body image, and appearance can help build confidence and reduce the overwhelming nature of recovery.
Preventive Measures
- Promoting Positive Body Image: Encouraging a healthy and realistic view of body diversity can help reduce the societal pressure to conform to idealized body standards.
- Education: Raising awareness about the signs and symptoms of eating disorders and BDD can facilitate early intervention and support.
- Healthy Lifestyle Practices: Encouraging balanced nutrition, regular physical activity, and adequate sleep can support overall well-being and reduce the risk of developing eating disorders and BDD.
Conclusion
Eating disorders and body dysmorphia are complex mental health conditions that require a multifaceted approach to treatment and recovery. Understanding the underlying causes and implementing effective strategies can significantly improve the quality of life for individuals struggling with these disorders. By fostering a healthier relationship with food and promoting positive body image, we can create a supportive environment that facilitates healing and resilience.
References
Fairburn, C. G. (2008). Cognitive Behavior Therapy and Eating Disorders. Guilford Press.
Fairburn, C. G., Cooper, Z., & Shafran, R. (2003). Cognitive behavior therapy for eating disorders: A "transdiagnostic" theory and treatment. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 41(5), 509-528.
Fairburn, C. G., Bailey-Straebler, S., Basden, S., Doll, H. A., Jones, R., Murphy, R., ... & Cooper, Z. (2015). A transdiagnostic comparison of enhanced cognitive behavior therapy (CBT-E) and interpersonal psychotherapy in the treatment of eating disorders. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 70, 64-71.
Grabe, S., Ward, L. M., & Hyde, J. S. (2008). The role of the media in body image concerns among women: A meta-analysis of experimental and correlational studies. Psychological Bulletin, 134(3), 460-476.
Harrison, A., Mountford, V. A., & Weinman, J. (2016). Strategy use in anorexia nervosa: Development and validation of the self-regulation of eating behavior questionnaire. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 49(2), 213-220.
Kaye, W. H., Fudge, J. L., & Paulus, M. (2011). New insights into symptoms and neurocircuit function of anorexia nervosa. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 12(8), 573-584.
Kristeller, J. L., & Wolever, R. Q. (2011). Mindfulness-based eating awareness training for treating binge eating disorder: The conceptual foundation. Eating Disorders, 19(1), 49-61.
Park, J., Park, J. Y., & Lim, S. (2020). Influence of social media filter use on appearance anxiety: A moderated mediation model. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 571287.
Phillips, K. A. (2005). The broken mirror: Understanding and treating body dysmorphic disorder. Oxford University Press.
Phillips, K. A., Albertini, R. S., & Rasmussen, S. A. (2002). A randomized placebo-controlled trial of fluoxetine in body dysmorphic disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry, 59(4), 381-388.
Rodgers, R. F., & Melioli, T. (2016). The relationship between body image concerns, eating disorders and internet use, part II: An integrated theoretical model. Adolescent Research Review, 1(2), 121-137.
Smink, F. R., van Hoeken, D., & Hoek, H. W. (2012). Epidemiology, course, and outcome of eating disorders. Current Opinion in Psychiatry, 25(6), 543-548.
Tiggemann, M. (2014). Media exposure, body dissatisfaction and disordered eating: Television and magazines are not the same! European Eating Disorders Review, 12(1), 15-23.
Veale, D. (2004). Advances in a cognitive behavioural model of body dysmorphic disorder. Body Image, 1(1), 113-125.
Wilhelm, S., Otto, M. W., Lohr, B., & Glass, C. (1999). Cognitive behavior group therapy for body dysmorphic disorder: A case series. *Behavior Research and Therapy
Our Relationship with Food: Understanding Eating Disorders, Body Dysmorphia, and Strategies for Overcoming Them
Introduction
The relationship with food is a complex and multifaceted aspect of human life. Food is not only essential for physical sustenance but also deeply intertwined with cultural practices, social interactions, and emotional well-being. However, this relationship can become problematic for some individuals, leading to the development of eating disorders and body dysmorphia. This blog aims to explore the nature of eating disorders, body dysmorphia, why they occur, and provide strategies for overcoming these mental health concerns.
Understanding Eating Disorders
Types of Eating Disorders
Eating disorders are serious mental health conditions characterized by abnormal eating habits that can significantly impair physical health and psychosocial functioning. The most common types include:
- Anorexia Nervosa: Characterized by an intense fear of gaining weight, leading to self-starvation and excessive weight loss.
- Bulimia Nervosa: Involves cycles of binge eating followed by compensatory behaviors such as vomiting, fasting, or excessive exercise to prevent weight gain.
- Binge-Eating Disorder: Marked by recurrent episodes of eating large quantities of food, often rapidly and to the point of discomfort, accompanied by feelings of loss of control and guilt.
Causes of Eating Disorders
The etiology of eating disorders is multifactorial, involving a combination of biological, psychological, and sociocultural factors.
Biological Factors
- Genetic Predisposition: Research has shown that eating disorders often run in families, suggesting a genetic component. Twin studies indicate a higher concordance rate for eating disorders among identical twins compared to fraternal twins (Trace et al., 2013).
- Neurobiological Factors: Abnormalities in brain structure and function, particularly in areas related to reward processing, impulse control, and appetite regulation, have been implicated in eating disorders (Kaye, Wierenga, Bailer, Simmons, & Bischoff-Grethe, 2013).
- Hormonal Imbalances: Dysregulation of hormones such as leptin and ghrelin, which are involved in hunger and satiety signaling, can contribute to disordered eating behaviors (Monteleone & Maj, 2013).
Psychological Factors
- Low Self-Esteem: Individuals with low self-esteem may use disordered eating behaviors as a way to gain a sense of control and self-worth (Fairburn, 2008).
- Perfectionism: High levels of perfectionism, particularly in appearance and body image, are strongly associated with eating disorders (Bardone-Cone et al., 2007).
- Trauma and Abuse: A history of physical, emotional, or sexual abuse is a significant risk factor for the development of eating disorders (Smolak & Murnen, 2002).
Sociocultural Factors
- Cultural Beauty Standards: Societal emphasis on thinness and the idealization of certain body types can lead to body dissatisfaction and disordered eating behaviors (Tiggemann, 2014).
- Media Influence: Exposure to media that glorifies thinness and perpetuates unrealistic body standards is linked to increased body dissatisfaction and eating disorder symptoms (Rodgers & Melioli, 2016). For example, a study found that social media use is strongly linked to body dissatisfaction and disordered eating behaviors among young adults (Rodgers & Melioli, 2016).
- Peer Pressure: Social pressures from peers to conform to certain body standards can contribute to the development of eating disorders, particularly among adolescents (Jones et al., 2004).
Understanding Body Dysmorphia
What is Body Dysmorphic Disorder (BDD)?
Body Dysmorphic Disorder (BDD) is a mental health condition where an individual becomes obsessively concerned with perceived flaws or defects in their physical appearance. These perceived flaws are often minor or not observable to others. BDD can significantly impact an individual's daily life, leading to excessive grooming, mirror checking, skin picking, and in severe cases, seeking unnecessary cosmetic procedures.
Causes of Body Dysmorphia
Similar to eating disorders, the causes of BDD are multifactorial:
Biological Factors
- Genetic Influences: Family studies suggest a genetic component to BDD, with first-degree relatives of individuals with BDD having a higher prevalence of the disorder (Phillips, 2005).
- Neurobiological Factors: Abnormalities in brain function, particularly in areas involved in visual processing and emotional regulation, have been associated with BDD (Feusner et al., 2010).
- Serotonin Dysfunction: Imbalances in serotonin levels have been implicated in BDD, and SSRIs have been found effective in treating the disorder (Phillips et al., 2002).
Psychological Factors
- Perfectionism: High levels of perfectionism, particularly related to appearance, are a significant risk factor for BDD (Veale, 2004).
- Trauma and Abuse: Individuals with a history of trauma or abuse may be more likely to develop BDD (Didie et al., 2006).
Sociocultural Factors
- Societal Emphasis on Appearance: Cultural and societal pressures to achieve certain beauty standards can contribute to the development of BDD (Grabe, Ward, & Hyde, 2008).
- Media Influence: The portrayal of idealized beauty standards in the media, including the use of filters on social media, can exacerbate body image issues (Park et al., 2020). For example, the increase in social media filter usage has been linked to heightened body dissatisfaction among teenagers (Park et al., 2020).
Strategies for Overcoming Eating Disorders and Body Dysmorphia
Addressing these mental health concerns requires a comprehensive and multidisciplinary approach. Here are some effective strategies:
Professional Treatment
- Therapy: Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) is highly effective in treating both eating disorders and BDD by addressing distorted thoughts and behaviors related to food, body image, and appearance (Fairburn et al., 2015; Wilhelm, Otto, Lohr, & Glass, 1999). Other therapeutic approaches include interpersonal therapy (IPT) and dialectical behavior therapy (DBT). For example, CBT has been shown to reduce symptoms of BDD by helping individuals challenge their negative thoughts about appearance and develop healthier coping strategies (Harrison et al., 2016).
- Medical Care: Regular medical monitoring is essential to address the physical health complications associated with eating disorders. This may involve working with a primary care physician, nutritionist, and psychiatrist.
- Medications: Antidepressants, particularly selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), can be helpful in treating co-occurring conditions such as depression, anxiety, and BDD (Phillips et al., 2002).
Self-Help Strategies
- Mindful Eating: Practicing mindfulness during meals can help individuals become more aware of their hunger and fullness cues, promoting a healthier relationship with food (Kristeller & Wolever, 2011). For instance, someone with binge-eating disorder might practice mindful eating by paying close attention to the taste, texture, and smell of their food, which can help reduce the urge to binge.
- Building a Support Network: Connecting with supportive friends, family members, or support groups can provide emotional support and reduce feelings of isolation.
- Setting Realistic Goals: Focusing on small, achievable goals related to eating behaviors, body image, and appearance can help build confidence and reduce the overwhelming nature of recovery.
Preventive Measures
- Promoting Positive Body Image: Encouraging a healthy and realistic view of body diversity can help reduce the societal pressure to conform to idealized body standards.
- Education: Raising awareness about the signs and symptoms of eating disorders and BDD can facilitate early intervention and support.
- Healthy Lifestyle Practices: Encouraging balanced nutrition, regular physical activity, and adequate sleep can support overall well-being and reduce the risk of developing eating disorders and BDD.
Conclusion
Eating disorders and body dysmorphia are complex mental health conditions that require a multifaceted approach to treatment and recovery. Understanding the underlying causes and implementing effective strategies can significantly improve the quality of life for individuals struggling with these disorders. By fostering a healthier relationship with food and promoting positive body image, we can create a supportive environment that facilitates healing and resilience.
References
Bardone-Cone, A. M., Wonderlich, S. A., Frost, R. O., Bulik, C. M., Mitchell, J. E., Uppala, S., & Simonich, H. (2007). Perfectionism and eating disorders: Current status and future directions. Clinical Psychology Review, 27(3), 384-405.
Didie, E. R., Kuniega-Pietrzak, T., & Phillips, K. A. (2006). Body image in patients with body dysmorphic disorder: Evaluations of and investment in appearance, aesthetics, and fitness. Body Image, 3(3), 361-369.
Fairburn, C. G. (2008). Cognitive Behavior Therapy and Eating Disorders. Guilford Press.
Fairburn, C. G., Cooper, Z., & Shafran, R. (2003). Cognitive behavior therapy for eating disorders: A "transdiagnostic" theory and treatment. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 41(5), 509-528.
Fairburn, C. G., Bailey-Straebler, S., Basden, S., Doll, H. A., Jones, R
Our Relationship with Food: Understanding Eating Disorders, Body Dysmorphia, and Strategies for Overcoming Them
Introduction
The relationship with food is a complex and multifaceted aspect of human life. Food is not only essential for physical sustenance but also deeply intertwined with cultural practices, social interactions, and emotional well-being. However, this relationship can become problematic for some individuals, leading to the development of eating disorders and body dysmorphia. This blog aims to explore the nature of eating disorders, body dysmorphia, why they occur, and provide strategies for overcoming these mental health concerns.
Understanding Eating Disorders
Types of Eating Disorders
Eating disorders are serious mental health conditions characterized by abnormal eating habits that can significantly impair physical health and psychosocial functioning. The most common types include:
- Anorexia Nervosa: Characterized by an intense fear of gaining weight, leading to self-starvation and excessive weight loss.
- Bulimia Nervosa: Involves cycles of binge eating followed by compensatory behaviors such as vomiting, fasting, or excessive exercise to prevent weight gain.
- Binge-Eating Disorder: Marked by recurrent episodes of eating large quantities of food, often rapidly and to the point of discomfort, accompanied by feelings of loss of control and guilt.
Causes of Eating Disorders
The etiology of eating disorders is multifactorial, involving a combination of biological, psychological, and sociocultural factors.
Biological Factors
- Genetic Predisposition: Research has shown that eating disorders often run in families, suggesting a genetic component. Twin studies indicate a higher concordance rate for eating disorders among identical twins compared to fraternal twins (Trace et al., 2013).
- Neurobiological Factors: Abnormalities in brain structure and function, particularly in areas related to reward processing, impulse control, and appetite regulation, have been implicated in eating disorders (Kaye, Wierenga, Bailer, Simmons, & Bischoff-Grethe, 2013).
- Hormonal Imbalances: Dysregulation of hormones such as leptin and ghrelin, which are involved in hunger and satiety signaling, can contribute to disordered eating behaviors (Monteleone & Maj, 2013).
Psychological Factors
- Low Self-Esteem: Individuals with low self-esteem may use disordered eating behaviors as a way to gain a sense of control and self-worth (Fairburn, 2008).
- Perfectionism: High levels of perfectionism, particularly in appearance and body image, are strongly associated with eating disorders (Bardone-Cone et al., 2007).
- Trauma and Abuse: A history of physical, emotional, or sexual abuse is a significant risk factor for the development of eating disorders (Smolak & Murnen, 2002).
Sociocultural Factors
- Cultural Beauty Standards: Societal emphasis on thinness and the idealization of certain body types can lead to body dissatisfaction and disordered eating behaviors (Tiggemann, 2014).
- Media Influence: Exposure to media that glorifies thinness and perpetuates unrealistic body standards is linked to increased body dissatisfaction and eating disorder symptoms (Rodgers & Melioli, 2016). For instance, a study by Rodgers and Melioli (2016) found that social media use is strongly linked to body dissatisfaction and disordered eating behaviors among young adults.
- Peer Pressure: Social pressures from peers to conform to certain body standards can contribute to the development of eating disorders, particularly among adolescents (Jones et al., 2004).
Our Relationship with Food and Body Image
Impact on Body Image
Our relationship with food plays a significant role in shaping our body image, which is how we perceive and feel about our physical appearance. An unhealthy relationship with food can lead to negative body image, contributing to the development of eating disorders and body dysmorphic disorder (BDD).
For example, individuals who engage in restrictive dieting or binge eating may develop an intense preoccupation with their body size and shape. This preoccupation can lead to frequent body checking, such as weighing oneself or scrutinizing body parts in the mirror, and can significantly affect self-esteem and self-worth.
Pathway to Body Dysmorphia
Body Dysmorphic Disorder (BDD) is a mental health condition where an individual becomes obsessively concerned with perceived flaws or defects in their physical appearance. These perceived flaws are often minor or not observable to others. BDD can significantly impact an individual's daily life, leading to excessive grooming, mirror checking, skin picking, and in severe cases, seeking unnecessary cosmetic procedures.
How Eating Behaviors Influence BDD
- Distorted Eating Habits: Disordered eating behaviors such as extreme dieting, binge eating, or purging can exacerbate body dissatisfaction and increase the risk of developing BDD. Individuals may believe that achieving a certain body size or shape will improve their self-esteem, leading to obsessive behaviors and thoughts about their appearance (Phillips, 2005).
- Perfectionism: High levels of perfectionism, particularly related to appearance, are a significant risk factor for both eating disorders and BDD. The relentless pursuit of an ideal body image can lead to severe distress and impairment in functioning (Veale, 2004).
- Media and Social Comparison: The media's portrayal of idealized beauty standards and the use of filters on social media can exacerbate body image issues and contribute to the development of BDD. For instance, the increase in social media filter usage has been linked to heightened body dissatisfaction among teenagers (Park et al., 2020).
Strategies for Overcoming Eating Disorders and Body Dysmorphia
Addressing these mental health concerns requires a comprehensive and multidisciplinary approach. Here are some effective strategies:
Professional Treatment
- Therapy: Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) is highly effective in treating both eating disorders and BDD by addressing distorted thoughts and behaviors related to food, body image, and appearance (Fairburn et al., 2015; Wilhelm, Otto, Lohr, & Glass, 1999). Other therapeutic approaches include interpersonal therapy (IPT) and dialectical behavior therapy (DBT). For example, CBT has been shown to reduce symptoms of BDD by helping individuals challenge their negative thoughts about appearance and develop healthier coping strategies (Harrison et al., 2016).
- Medical Care: Regular medical monitoring is essential to address the physical health complications associated with eating disorders. This may involve working with a primary care physician, nutritionist, and psychiatrist.
- Medications: Antidepressants, particularly selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), can be helpful in treating co-occurring conditions such as depression, anxiety, and BDD (Phillips et al., 2002).
Self-Help Strategies
- Mindful Eating: Practicing mindfulness during meals can help individuals become more aware of their hunger and fullness cues, promoting a healthier relationship with food (Kristeller & Wolever, 2011). For instance, someone with binge-eating disorder might practice mindful eating by paying close attention to the taste, texture, and smell of their food, which can help reduce the urge to binge.
- Building a Support Network: Connecting with supportive friends, family members, or support groups can provide emotional support and reduce feelings of isolation.
- Setting Realistic Goals: Focusing on small, achievable goals related to eating behaviors, body image, and appearance can help build confidence and reduce the overwhelming nature of recovery.
Preventive Measures
- Promoting Positive Body Image: Encouraging a healthy and realistic view of body diversity can help reduce the societal pressure to conform to idealized body standards.
- Education: Raising awareness about the signs and symptoms of eating disorders and BDD can facilitate early intervention and support.
- Healthy Lifestyle Practices: Encouraging balanced nutrition, regular physical activity, and adequate sleep can support overall well-being and reduce the risk of developing eating disorders and BDD.
Conclusion
Eating disorders and body dysmorphia are complex mental health conditions that require a multifaceted approach to treatment and recovery. Understanding the underlying causes and implementing effective strategies can significantly improve the quality of life for individuals struggling with these disorders. By fostering a healthier relationship with food and promoting positive body image, we can create a supportive environment that facilitates healing and resilience.
References
Bardone-Cone, A. M., Wonderlich, S. A., Frost, R. O., Bulik, C. M., Mitchell, J. E., Uppala, S., & Simonich, H. (2007). Perfectionism and eating disorders: Current status and future directions. Clinical Psychology Review, 27(3), 384-405.
Didie, E. R., Kuniega-Pietrzak, T., & Phillips, K. A. (2006). Body image in patients with body dysmorphic disorder: Evaluations of and investment in appearance, aesthetics, and fitness. Body Image, 3(3), 361-369.
Fairburn, C. G. (2008). Cognitive Behavior Therapy and Eating Disorders. Guilford Press.
Fairburn, C. G., Cooper, Z., & Shafran, R. (2003). Cognitive behavior therapy for eating disorders: A "transdiagnostic" theory and treatment. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 41(5), 509-528.
Fairburn, C. G., Bailey-Straebler, S., Basden, S., Doll, H. A., Jones, R., Murphy, R., ... & Cooper, Z. (2015). A transdiagnostic comparison of enhanced cognitive behavior
Our Relationship with Food: Understanding Eating Disorders, Body Dysmorphia, and Strategies for Overcoming Them
Introduction
The relationship with food is a complex and multifaceted aspect of human life. Food is not only essential for physical sustenance but also deeply intertwined with cultural practices, social interactions, and emotional well-being. However, this relationship can become problematic for some individuals, leading to the development of eating disorders and body dysmorphia. This blog aims to explore the nature of eating disorders, body dysmorphia, why they occur, and provide strategies for overcoming these mental health concerns.
Understanding Eating Disorders
Types of Eating Disorders
Eating disorders are serious mental health conditions characterized by abnormal eating habits that can significantly impair physical health and psychosocial functioning. The most common types include:
- Anorexia Nervosa: Characterized by an intense fear of gaining weight, leading to self-starvation and excessive weight loss.
- Example: Sarah, a 20-year-old college student, became obsessed with counting calories and excessively exercising to lose weight. Despite being underweight, she continued to see herself as overweight and refused to eat enough to maintain a healthy body weight.
- Bulimia Nervosa: Involves cycles of binge eating followed by compensatory behaviors such as vomiting, fasting, or excessive exercise to prevent weight gain.
- Example: John, a 25-year-old athlete, often found himself binge eating late at night. To counteract the calories consumed, he would engage in purging by inducing vomiting and going on extreme diets.
- Binge-Eating Disorder: Marked by recurrent episodes of eating large quantities of food, often rapidly and to the point of discomfort, accompanied by feelings of loss of control and guilt.
- Example: Emily, a 35-year-old professional, would frequently binge eat in response to stress. She often ate large amounts of junk food in a short period and felt immense guilt and shame afterward.
Causes of Eating Disorders
The etiology of eating disorders is multifactorial, involving a combination of biological, psychological, and sociocultural factors.
Biological Factors
Genetic Predisposition: Research has shown that eating disorders often run in families, suggesting a genetic component. Twin studies indicate a higher concordance rate for eating disorders among identical twins compared to fraternal twins (Trace et al., 2013).
- Example: Lucy's mother and grandmother both struggled with eating disorders, which suggested a genetic predisposition to the condition.
Neurobiological Factors: Abnormalities in brain structure and function, particularly in areas related to reward processing, impulse control, and appetite regulation, have been implicated in eating disorders (Kaye, Wierenga, Bailer, Simmons, & Bischoff-Grethe, 2013).
- Example: Brain imaging studies of patients like Mark, who had anorexia nervosa, showed differences in brain areas responsible for hunger and satiety signals.
Hormonal Imbalances: Dysregulation of hormones such as leptin and ghrelin, which are involved in hunger and satiety signaling, can contribute to disordered eating behaviors (Monteleone & Maj, 2013).
- Example: Jenna's binge-eating episodes were linked to imbalances in her hunger hormones, making it difficult for her to recognize when she was full.
Psychological Factors
- Low Self-Esteem: Individuals with low self-esteem may use disordered eating behaviors as a way to gain a sense of control and self-worth (Fairburn, 2008).
- Example: Tom, who struggled with low self-esteem, found that controlling his food intake gave him a sense of accomplishment and control over his life.
- Perfectionism: High levels of perfectionism, particularly in appearance and body image, are strongly associated with eating disorders (Bardone-Cone et al., 2007).
- Example: Anna, a ballet dancer, felt immense pressure to maintain a perfect physique, leading her to develop restrictive eating habits.
- Trauma and Abuse: A history of physical, emotional, or sexual abuse is a significant risk factor for the development of eating disorders (Smolak & Murnen, 2002).
- Example: Mia's anorexia nervosa developed after experiencing emotional abuse during her teenage years, as she sought to control her body when other parts of her life felt out of control.
Sociocultural Factors
- Cultural Beauty Standards: Societal emphasis on thinness and the idealization of certain body types can lead to body dissatisfaction and disordered eating behaviors (Tiggemann, 2014).
- Example: James constantly compared himself to the muscular models in fitness magazines, which led to his obsession with extreme dieting and exercise.
- Media Influence: Exposure to media that glorifies thinness and perpetuates unrealistic body standards is linked to increased body dissatisfaction and eating disorder symptoms (Rodgers & Melioli, 2016). For instance, a study by Rodgers and Melioli (2016) found that social media use is strongly linked to body dissatisfaction and disordered eating behaviors among young adults.
- Example: Lily, a teenager, developed bulimia nervosa after constantly viewing images of slim influencers on social media and feeling inadequate about her own body.
- Peer Pressure: Social pressures from peers to conform to certain body standards can contribute to the development of eating disorders, particularly among adolescents (Jones et al., 2004).
- Example: Mike, a high school student, started purging after meals due to constant teasing from his friends about his weight.
Our Relationship with Food and Body Image
Impact on Body Image
Our relationship with food plays a significant role in shaping our body image, which is how we perceive and feel about our physical appearance. An unhealthy relationship with food can lead to negative body image, contributing to the development of eating disorders and body dysmorphic disorder (BDD).
- Example: After years of yo-yo dieting and body dissatisfaction, Rachel began to obsess over minor flaws in her appearance, eventually developing BDD.
Pathway to Body Dysmorphia
Body Dysmorphic Disorder (BDD) is a mental health condition where an individual becomes obsessively concerned with perceived flaws or defects in their physical appearance. These perceived flaws are often minor or not observable to others. BDD can significantly impact an individual's daily life, leading to excessive grooming, mirror checking, skin picking, and in severe cases, seeking unnecessary cosmetic procedures.
How Eating Behaviors Influence BDD
- Distorted Eating Habits: Disordered eating behaviors such as extreme dieting, binge eating, or purging can exacerbate body dissatisfaction and increase the risk of developing BDD. Individuals may believe that achieving a certain body size or shape will improve their self-esteem, leading to obsessive behaviors and thoughts about their appearance (Phillips, 2005).
- Example: After losing a significant amount of weight through restrictive dieting, Jane became fixated on perceived imperfections in her skin and body shape, leading to BDD.
- Perfectionism: High levels of perfectionism, particularly related to appearance, are a significant risk factor for both eating disorders and BDD. The relentless pursuit of an ideal body image can lead to severe distress and impairment in functioning (Veale, 2004).
- Example: David's obsession with having the "perfect" body led him to develop both bulimia nervosa and BDD, spending hours each day trying to fix perceived flaws.
- Media and Social Comparison: The media's portrayal of idealized beauty standards and the use of filters on social media can exacerbate body image issues and contribute to the development of BDD. For instance, the increase in social media filter usage has been linked to heightened body dissatisfaction among teenagers (Park et al., 2020).
- Example: Emily's frequent use of social media filters made her dissatisfied with her real-life appearance, leading to BDD symptoms.
Strategies for Overcoming Eating Disorders and Body Dysmorphia
Addressing these mental health concerns requires a comprehensive and multidisciplinary approach. Here are some effective strategies:
Professional Treatment
- Therapy: Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) is highly effective in treating both eating disorders and BDD by addressing distorted thoughts and behaviors related to food, body image, and appearance (Fairburn et al., 2015; Wilhelm, Otto, Lohr, & Glass, 1999). Other therapeutic approaches include interpersonal therapy (IPT) and dialectical behavior therapy (DBT). For example, CBT has been shown to reduce symptoms of BDD by helping individuals challenge their negative thoughts about appearance and develop healthier coping strategies (Harrison et al., 2016).
- Example: Through CBT, Megan learned to challenge her distorted beliefs about her body and develop healthier eating habits.
- Medical Care: Regular medical monitoring is essential to address the physical health complications associated with eating disorders. This may involve working with a primary care physician, nutritionist, and psychiatrist.
- Example: Alex received comprehensive care from a team that included a dietitian, therapist, and physician to manage his bulimia nervosa.
- Medications: Antidepressants, particularly selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), can be helpful in treating co-occurring conditions such as depression, anxiety, and BDD (Phillips et al., 2002).
- Example: Laura's BDD symptoms improved significantly with the use of SSRIs in conjunction with therapy.
Self-Help Strategies
- Mindful Eating: Practicing mindfulness during meals can help individuals become more aware of their hunger and fullness cues, promoting a healthier relationship with food (Kristeller & Wolever, 2011). For instance, someone with binge-eating disorder might practice mindful eating by paying close attention to the taste, texture, and smell of their food, which can help reduce the urge to binge.
- Example: By practicing mindful eating, Sarah began to enjoy her meals without the urge to overeat, reducing her binge-eating episodes.
- Building a Support Network: Connecting with supportive friends, family members, or support groups can provide emotional support and reduce feelings of isolation.
- Example: Joining a support group for individuals with eating disorders helped John feel less alone and more motivated to recover.
- Setting Realistic Goals: Focusing on small, achievable goals related to eating behaviors, body image, and appearance can help build confidence and reduce the overwhelming nature of recovery.
- Example: Emily set small, manageable goals like eating three balanced meals a day, which helped her gradually overcome her binge-eating disorder.
Preventive Measures
- Promoting Positive Body Image: Encouraging a healthy and realistic view of body diversity can help reduce the societal pressure to conform to idealized body standards.
- Example: Campaigns that celebrate body diversity and challenge beauty stereotypes can help foster positive body image in young people.
- Education: Raising awareness about the signs and symptoms of eating disorders and BDD can facilitate early intervention and support.
- Example: School programs that educate students about the dangers of eating disorders and the importance of body positivity can be effective preventive measures.
- Healthy Lifestyle Practices: Encouraging balanced nutrition, regular physical activity, and adequate sleep can support overall well-being and reduce the risk of developing eating disorders and BDD.
- Example: Promoting a balanced lifestyle that includes healthy eating, exercise, and self-care can help individuals maintain a positive relationship with food and their bodies.
Conclusion
Eating disorders and body dysmorphia are complex mental health conditions that require a multifaceted approach to treatment and recovery. Understanding the underlying causes and implementing effective strategies can significantly improve the quality of life for individuals struggling with these disorders. By fostering a healthier relationship with food and promoting positive body image, we can create a supportive environment that facilitates healing and resilience.
References
Bardone-Cone, A. M., Wonderlich, S. A., Frost, R. O., Bulik, C. M., Mitchell, J. E., Uppala, S., & Simonich, H. (2007). Perfectionism and eating disorders: Current status and future directions. Clinical Psychology Review, 27(3), 384-405.
Didie, E. R., Kuniega-Pietrzak, T., & Phillips, K. A. (2006). Body image in patients with body dysmorphic disorder: Evaluations of and investment in appearance, aesthetics, and fitness. Body Image, 3(3), 361-369.
Fairburn, C. G. (2008). Cognitive Behavior Therapy and Eating Disorders. Guilford Press.
Fairburn, C. G., Cooper, Z., & Shafran, R. (2003). Cognitive behavior therapy for eating disorders: A "transdiagnostic" theory and treatment. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 41(5), 509-528.
Fairburn, C. G., Bailey-Straebler, S., Basden, S., Doll, H. A., Jones, R., Murphy, R., ... & Cooper, Z. (2015). A transdiagnostic comparison of enhanced cognitive behavior therapy (CBT-E) and interpersonal psychotherapy in the treatment of eating disorders. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 70, 64-71.
Grabe, S., Ward, L. M., & Hyde, J. S. (2008). The role of the media in body image concerns among women: A meta-analysis of experimental and correlational studies. Psychological Bulletin, 134(3), 460-476.
Harrison, A., Mountford, V. A., & Weinman, J. (2016). Strategy use in anorexia nervosa: Development and validation of the self-regulation of eating behavior questionnaire. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 49(2), 213-220.
Jones, D. C., Vigfusdottir, T. H., & Lee, Y. (2004). Body image and the appearance culture among adolescent girls and boys: An examination of friend conversations, peer criticism, appearance magazines, and the internalization of appearance ideals. Journal of Adolescent Research, 19(3), 323-339.
Kaye, W. H., Wierenga, C. E., Bailer, U. F., Simmons, A. N., & Bischoff-Grethe, A. (2013). Nothing tastes as good as skinny feels: The neurobiology of anorexia nervosa. Trends in Neurosciences, 36(2), 110-120.
Kristeller, J. L., & Wolever, R. Q. (2011). Mindfulness-based eating awareness training for treating binge eating disorder: The conceptual foundation. Eating Disorders, 19(1), 49-61.
Monteleone, P., & Maj, M. (2013). Dysregulation of the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis and eating disorders. Neuroendocrinology, 98(4), 267-273.
Park, J., Park, J. Y., & Lim, S. (2020). Influence of social media filter use on appearance anxiety: A moderated mediation model. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 571287.
Phillips, K. A. (2005). The broken mirror: Understanding and treating body dysmorphic disorder. Oxford University Press.
Phillips, K. A., Albertini, R. S., & Rasmussen, S. A. (2002). A randomized placebo-controlled trial of fluoxetine in body dysmorphic disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry, 59(4), 381-388.
Rodgers, R. F., & Melioli, T. (2016). The relationship between body image concerns, eating disorders and internet use, part II: An integrated theoretical model. Adolescent Research Review, 1(2), 121-137.
Smolak, L., & Murnen, S. K. (2002). A meta-analytic examination of the relationship between child sexual abuse and eating disorders. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 31(2), 136-150.
Tiggemann, M. (2014). Media exposure, body dissatisfaction and disordered eating: Television and magazines are not the same! European Eating Disorders Review, 12(1), 15-23.
Veale, D. (2004). Advances in a cognitive behavioural model of body dysmorphic disorder. Body Image, 1(1), 113-125.
Wilhelm, S., Otto, M. W., Lohr, B., & Glass, C. (1999). Cognitive behavior group therapy for body dysmorphic disorder: A case series. Behavior Research and Therapy, 37(1), 71-75.
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